Contribution Of Indian Mathematics History Essay

Contribution Of Indian Mathematics History Essay Mathematics is the study of numbers, and counting, and measuring, but that is only the beginning. Mathematics involves the study of number patterns and relationships, too. It is also a way to communicate ideas, and perhaps more than anything, it is a way of reasoning that is unique to human beings. Mathematics plays a vital role in the modernization of this civilization. It is everywhere and affects the everyday lives of people. Although it is abstract and theoretical knowledge, it emerges from the real world. It is also a way to communicate and analyze ideas, a tool for organizing and interpreting data and above all, perhaps a method of logical reasoning unique to man. Mathematics is a necessary part of other sciences. In the words of Physicist Richard Feynan (2002) Nature talks to us in the language of mathematics that is numbers, mathematical rules and equations help us to make sense of the world around us (The Book of Popular Science). Mathematics in some form or other has been s ince the early age of human civilization. But its use in todays world has assumed great importance, since without its application higher technology cannot be mastered and harnessed for increasing production of goods and services and promoting human welfare. Over the centuries there has been spectacular progress in the development of mathematics as a branch of knowledge. And without the application of mathematics on a wide scale no country can march forward in line with the general progress of human knowledge and thought. Therefore learning of mathematics and promoting the horizons of knowledge by advanced researches in mathematics should be over emphasized. Thus, mathematics is an important and inseparable part of human life. It has been existed and developed since the ancient era and the aim of this article is to give a brief review of a few of the outstanding innovations introduced by Indian mathematics from ancient times to modern as Indias contribution in the field of mathematic s is immense and it should always be studied from a thoughtful perspective. Key Words: INTRODUCTION: India was the motherland of our race and Sanskrit the mother of Europes languages. India was the mother of our philosophy, of much of our mathematics, of the ideals embodied in Christianity of self-government and democracy. In many ways, Mother India is the mother of us all. Will Durant, American Historian 1885-1981 Mathematics is an important field of study. Mathematics is vital as it helps in developing lots of practical skills, in fact study of mathematics itself include the concepts related to the routine lives of human. It not only develops mathematical skills and concepts, it also helps in developing the attitudes, interest, and appreciation and provides opportunities to develop ones own thinking. So, mathematics is undoubtedly a discipline which is imperative to know and study. Fig. 1, Importance of MathematicsC:UsersnaveenDesktopUntitled.png Mathematics has played a very significant role in the development of Indian culture for millennia. Mathematical ideas that originated in the Indian subcontinent have had a thoughtful impact on the world. In ancient time, mathematics was mainly used in an auxiliary or applied role. Thus mathematical methods were used to solve problems in architecture and construction (as in the public works of the Harrappan civilization) in astronomy and astrology (as in the Jain mathematicians) and in the construction of Vedic altars (as in the case of the Shulba Sutras of Baudhayana and his successors). By the sixth or fifth century BCE, mathematics was studied for its own sake, as well as for its application in other fields of knowledge. In fact there does not seem to have been a time in Indian history when mathematics was not being developed. Recent work has unearthed many manuscripts, and what were previously regarded as inactive periods in Indian mathematics are now known to have been very activ e. The picture is yet not complete, and it seems that there is much more to do in the field of the history of Indian mathematics. The challenges are twofold. First, there is the task of locating and identifying manuscripts and of translating them into a language that is more familiar to modern scholars. Second there is the task of interpreting the significance of the work that was done. The time is ripe to make a major effort to develop as complete a picture as possible of Indian mathematics. The importance of mathematics in India can be seen by a well-known verse in Sanskrit of VedangJyotish (written 1000 BC) as: This verse means that As the crown on the head of a peacock and as the gem on the hood of a snake, so stands Mathematics crowned above all disciplines of knowledge. This fact was well known to intellectuals of India that is why they gave special importance to the development of mathematics, right from the beginning. Indian mathematicians made great strides in developing arithmetic, algebra, geometry, infinite series expansions and calculus. Indian works, through a variety of translations, have had significant influence throughout the world. Mathematics in ancient times (3000 to 600 BCE) The oldest evidence of mathematical knowledge to Indians is being found in Indus Valley Civilization. The metallic seals found in the excavations of Mohan-Jo-Daro and Harrapan indicates that the people of this civilization had the knowledge of numbers. It is also clear from the pottery and other archaeological remains that they had the knowledge of measurement and geometry even in crude form. The Indus valley civilization is considered to have existed around 3000 BCE. Two of its most famous cities, Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, provide evidence that construction of buildings followed a standardized measurement which was decimal in nature. Here, we see mathematical ideas developed for the purpose of construction. This civilization had an advanced brick-making technology (having invented the kiln). Bricks were used in the construction of buildings and embankments for flood control. The study of astronomy is considered to be even older, and there must have been mathematical theories on which it was based. Even in later times, we find that astronomy motivated considerable mathematical development, especially in the field of trigonometry. Much has been written about the mathematical constructions that are to be found in Vedic literature. In particular, the Shatapatha Brahmana, which is a part of the Shukla Yajur Veda, contains detailed descriptions of the geometric construction of altars for yajnas. Here, the brick-making technology of the Indus valley civilization was put to a new use. Supplementary to the Vedas are the Shulba Sutras. These texts are considered to date from 800 to 200 BCE. Four in number, they are named after their authors: Baudhayana (600 BCE), Manava (750 BCE), Apastamba (600 BCE), and Katyayana (200 BCE). The sutras contain the famous theorem commonly attributed to Pythagoras. The Shulba Sutras introduce the concept of irrational numbers, numbers that are not the ratio of two whole numbers. It is interesting that the mathematics of this period seems to have been developed for solving practical geometric problems, especially the construction of religious altars. However, the study of the series expansion for certain functions already hints at the development of an algebraic perspective. In later times, we find a shift towards algebra, with simplification of algebraic formulate and summation of series acting as catalysts for mathematical discovery. Jain Mathematics (600 BCE to 500 CE) Just as Vedic philosophy and theology inspired the development of certain aspects of mathematics, so too did the rise of Jainism. Jain cosmology led to ideas of the infinite. This in turn, led to the development of the notion of orders of infinity as a mathematical concept. By orders of infinity, we mean a theory by which one set could be deemed to be more infinite than another. In modern language, this corresponds to the notion of cardinality. For a finite set, its cardinality is the number of elements it contains. However, we need a more sophisticated notion to measure the size of an infinite set. In Europe, it was not until Cantors work in the nineteenth century that a proper concept of cardinality was established. Besides the investigations into infinity, this period saw developments in several other fields such as number theory, geometry, computing, with fractions. In particular, the recursion formula for binomial coefficients and the Pascals triangle were already known in this period. The period 600 CE coincides with the rise and dominance of Buddhism. In the Lalitavistara, a biography of the Buddha which may have been written around the first century CE, there is an incident about Gautama being asked to state the name of large powers of 10 starting with 10. He is able to give names to numbers up to 10 (tallaksana). The very fact that such large numbers had names suggests that the mathematicians of the day were comfortable thinking about very large numbers. It is hard to imagine calculating with such numbers without some form of place value system. Brahmi Numerals, The place-value system and Zero No account of Indian mathematics would be complete without a discussion of Indian numerals, the place-value system, and the concept of zero. The numerals that we use even today can be traced to the Brahmi numerals that seem to have made their appearance in 300 BCE. But Brahmi numerals were not part of a place value system. They evolved into the Gupta numerals around 400 CE and subsequently into the Devnagari numerals, which developed slowly between 600 and 1000 CE. By 600 CE, a place-value decimal system was well in use in India. This means that when a number is written down, each symbol that is used has an absolute value, but also a value relative to its position. For example, the numbers 1 and 5 have a value on their own, but also have a value relative to their position in the number 15. The importance of a place-value system need hardly be emphasized. It would suffice to cite an often-quoted remark by La-place: It is India that gave us the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit. But its very simplicity and the great ease which it has lent to computations put our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions; and we shall appreciate the magnificence of the achievement the more when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apolloniu s, two of the greatest men produced by ancient times. A place-value system of numerals was apparently known in other cultures; for example, the Babylonians used a sexagesimal place-value system as early as 1700 BCE, but the Indian system was the first decimal system. Moreover, until 400 BCE, The Babylonian system had an inherent ambiguity as there was no symbol for zero. Thus it was not a complete place-value system in the way we think of it today. The elevation of zero to the same status as other numbers involved difficulties that many brilliant mathematicians struggled with. The main problem was that the rules of arithmetic had to be formulated so as to include zero. While addition, subtraction, and multiplication with zero were mastered, division was a more subtle question. Today, we know that division by zero is not well-defined and so has to be excluded from the rules of arithmetic. But this understanding did not come all at once, and took the combined efforts of many minds. It is interesting to note that it was not until the seventeenth century that zero was being used in Europe. The Classical Era of Indian Mathematics (500 to 1200 CE) The most famous names of Indian mathematics belong to what is known as the classical era. This includes Aryabhata I (500 CE) Brahmagupta (700 CE), Bhaskara I (900 CE), Mahavira (900 CE), Aryabhatta II (1000 CE) and Bhaskarachrya or Bhaskara II (1200 CE). During this period, two centers of mathematical research emerged, one at Kusumapura near Pataliputra and the other at Ujjain. Aryabhata I was the dominant figure at Kusumapura. One of Aryabhatas discoveries was a method for solving linear equations of the form ax + by = c. Aryabhata devised a general method for solving such equations, and he called it the kuttaka (or pulverizer) method. It should be noted that Aryabhatas studied linear equations because of his interest in astronomy. Amongst other important contributions of Aryabhata is his approximation of Pie to four decimal places (3.14146) and work on trigonometry. The other major centre of mathematical learning during this period was Ujjain, which was home to Varahamihira, Brahmagupta and Bhaskaracharya. The text Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta by Brahmagupta, published in 628 CE, dealt with arithmetic involving zero and negative numbers. As with Aryabhata, Brahmagupta was an astronomer, and much of his work was motivated by problems that arose in astronomy. He gave the famous formula for a solution to the quadratic equation. Brahmagupta also studied quadratic equation in two variables and sought solutions in whole numbers. This period closes with Bhaskaracharya (1200 CE). In his fundamental work on arithmetic (titled Lilavati) he refined the kuttaka method of Aryabhata and Brahmagupta. The Lilavati is impressive for its originality and diversity of topics. Brahmagupta discovered a method, which he called samasa, by which; given two solutions of the equation a third solution could be found. Brahmaguptas lemma was known one thousand years before it was rediscovered in Europe by Fermat, Legendre, and others. This method appears now in most standard text books and courses in number theory. The name of the equation is a historical accident. Mathematics in South India Mahavira is a mathematician belonging to the ninth century who was most likely from modern day Karnataka. He studied the problem of cubic and quartic equations and solved them for some families of equations. His work had a significant impact on the development of mathematics in South India. His book Ganita- sara- sangraha amplifies the work of Brahmagulpta and provides a very useful reference for the state of mathematics in his day. Another notable mathematician of South India was Madhava from Kerala. Madhava belongs to the fourteenth century. He discovered series expansions for some trigonometric functions such as the sine, cosine and arctangent that were not known in Europe until after Newton. In modern terminology, these expansions are the Taylor series of the functions in question. Madhava gave an approximation to Pie of 3.14159265359, which goes far beyond the four decimal places computed by Aryabhata. Madhavas work with series expansions suggests that he either discovered elements of the differential calculus or nearly did so. Mathematics in the Modern Age In more recent times there have been many important discoveries made by mathematicians of Indian origin. We shall mention the work of three of them: Srinivasa Ramanujan, Harish-Chandra, and Manjul Bhargava. Ramanujan (1887- 1920) is perhaps the most famous of modern Indian mathematicians. Though he produced significant and beautiful results in many aspects of number theory, his most lasting discovery may be the arithmetic theory of modular forms. In an important paper published in 1916, he initiated the study of the Pie function. Ramanujan proved some properties of the function and conjectured many more. As a result of his work, the modern arithmetic theory of modular forms, which occupies a central place in number theory and algebraic geometry, was developed by Hecke. Harish-Chandra (1923- 83) is perhaps the least known Indian mathematician outside of mathematical circles. He began his career as a physicist, working under Dirac. In his thesis, he worked on the representation theory of the group SL2 (C). This work convinced him that he was really a mathematician, and he spent the remainder of his academic life working on the representation theory of semi-simple groups. For most of that period, he was a professor at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. His Collected Papers published in four volumes contain more than 2,000 pages. His style is known as meticulous and thorough and his published work tends to treat the most general case at the very outset. This is in contrast to many other mathematicians, whose published work tends to evolve through special cases. Interestingly, the work of Harish-Chandra formed the basis of Langlandss theory of automorphic forms, which are a vast generalization of the modular forms considered by R amanujan. CONCLUSION: The present mathematical knowledge has not dropped as a bolt from the blue, nor a product of some magical tricks. The apparently ready-made knowledge and results have been achieved after centuries of efforts, often painful, by hundreds of mathematicians and historians through the ages. Lots of discoveries and inventers contributed to the fruits, facilities and luxuries which we enjoy today were the contribution of Indian mathematicians. From the notion of zero to the modern concept of computational number theory, their contribution is significant. It is without doubt that mathematics today owes a huge debt to the outstanding contributions made by Indian mathematicians over many hundreds of years. What is quite surprising is that there has been a reluctance to recognize this and one has to conclude that many famous historians of mathematics found what they expected to find, or perhaps even what they hoped to find, rather than to realize what was so clear in front of them. Kim Plofker from Netherland says that Indian mathematical science is extremely important and has a significant effect on the worlds knowledge as it is today. The lack of available resources has kept us under informed about the developments that have taken place in India. It is the need of the hour to carry forward the legacy of great mathematicians so as to encourage and nurture the glorious tradition of the country in mathematics. The ingenious method of expressing every possible number using a set of ten symbols (each symbol having a place value and an absolute value) emerged in India. The idea seems so simple nowadays that its significance and profound importance is no longer appreciated. Its simplicity lies in the way it facilitated calculation and placed arithmetic foremost amongst useful inventions. The importance of this invention is more readily appreciated when one considers that it was beyond the two greatest men of ancient times, Archimedes and Apollonius.

Words and Meaning :: Philosophy of Language

Words and Meaning How do words bear meaning? The notion that a word means what it stands for – its denotation - will be examined and found wanting because logical analysis is only able to illuminate limited areas of language. It will be then suggested that metaphysical speculations about the sort of entities named by words are at best unhelpful. The idea that words get their meaning from the way they are used in public discourse will then be introduced as potentially more useful, although some problems with this approach will also be noted. Finally it will be suggested, very briefly, that an answer to this question may best be found in the common human condition – how we operate in the world using language. It is attractive to assume that the meaning of a word is the entity it denotes. There are many cases where this definition will do. For example in the sentence, John sat at the table. ‘John’ denotes a person and ‘table’ denotes an object. This seems straightforward. There are sentences, however, where the meaning is apparently clear but where the entities are not so clear cut. The sentence below has a clear meaning: The singing was divine but the acting was wooden. The proposition carried by this sentence is easily understood. However, the entities ‘singing’ and ‘acting’ are not so clear. They are ongoing actions not so clearly defined as tables and chairs. Furthermore, the metaphorical qualifiers ‘divine’ and ‘wooden’ do not help do not sharpen the meaning. Is ‘divine’, for example, merely a fanciful replacement for ‘enjoyable’? A whole conversation about the nature of singing and acting might follow such an utterance. Denotation and questions of logical form do not seem to be helpful in explaining the meanings of words in ordinary talk although human beings do seem to be impelled towards rational discussion. We habitually give reasons for things. For example, a discussion about ‘the greatest footballer ’ often finishes with extensive debate about what the defining criteria might be (a verbal dispute about connotation). Subsequently the argument often then turns to which player best meets these criteria (arguments to establish denotation). Whatever the case the denotation for ‘the greatest footballer’ is problematical. Much of this kind of discourse is based upon opinions. These opinions may or may not be true. This in no way affects the meanings intended by the speakers.

Notes: Meaning of Life and Distinguished Indian Writer

R. K. Narayan (1906-2001) is one of the most famous and distinguished Indian writer in English. He had a fine insight into various aspects on the lives of the poor and the middle class people, particularly in South India. He makes the dull and common place events more interesting and this essay is one such essay. In a writing career that spanned over sixty years, Narayan received many awards and honours. His writings are full of humour. In this essay he explains the advantages of headache.A blessing for Mankind: R. K. Narayan explains how headache conferred on mankind as a blessing by a benign providence and also talks about the usefulness of headache to avoid difficult situations. He later narrates an incident in his school life about the letter writing exercise, where his teacher used headache as a cause in the specimen letter. He always wondered what made his teacher to select for headache as a cause even in a specimen letter.Later he talks about the drill class during his school days and how students usually mentioned ‘headache’ as an excuse for avoiding the drill class after the school hours. One day the instructor asked all the students suffering from headache to hold their arms. For many students it raised large hope. The instructor also added that he was going to give them some special exercise to cure their splitting headache. Not even a boy raised his arms. Thus the instructor put an end to that problem. Touch of Importance:Headache gives the sufferer a touch of importance because it can be mentioned in any social gathering and is well taken. No other pain can be so openly mentioned with freedom from punishment. Other aches sound crude and bad which cannot be mentioned in publish and thus headache helps us to avoid many embarrassing situation. What is indisposition? Indisposition is a superior expression; it can be used only by eminent people. R. K. Narayan was really concerned about finding the real meaning of the word indisposition sinc e it is very vague and confusing.He feels that he was not able to understand the meaning of the word indisposition except that it sounds very well in press notes or health bulletins or in messages from eminent men to gatherings to which they have been invited. It cannot be written directly and it will sound better in the third person. A gentlemen is an eminent one, has a secretary or a deputy who can speak for him. For example a gentleman regrets his inability to attend the meeting today owing to indisposition (sickness or unwillingness).People will understand and accept the statement and will not question the concerned person. R. K. Narayan wants to know the perfect meaning of indisposition. Is the concerned person down with flu or malaria or cold or rheumatism (pain in joints and muscles)? He feels that the word indisposition could be used only at a particular level, not by all and if a school boy says â€Å"As I am indisposed, I want to be let off†, he will have his ears t wisted for his intelligence beyond his age. Headache as an excuse:If we openly say that we want to avoid the situation or an important meeting, people will get angry. No one has really got courage to tell that he/she is not willing to attend a meeting or a social gathering. The world is not yet ripe for such outspokenness and frankness. So we safely use headache as an excuse. At home, headache is used as an excuse to avoid many uncomfortable situations. The mother-in-law, who is angry with the daughter-in-law, uses it to avoid food. The son, who does not want to take his wife out, gives headache as an excuse.The boy, who has skipped his homework, claims headache in order to avoid his tutor and to send him back away. The cultured existence is not to interfere too deeply, but to accept the face value as expressed by the speaker. Conclusion: Headache has become a confirmed habit. Lots of medicines have been produced to cure headache, which people always carry with them and feels uneasy without them. Opticians give glasses to cure and relieve headache. All these things prove that mankind easily begins to believe in myths.

Race and My Community The WritePass Journal

Race and My Community Introduction Race and My Community IntroductionREFERENCES:Related Introduction Many people believe that racism is a thing of the past when in fact race related hate is still a problem in America today. There are many recorded incidences of stereotyping, discrimination, and racial issue within my community. Neighborhood segregation in the northern cities is the biggest reminder of racial division in America. New laws state that racism, discrimination, and stereotyping are absolutely illegal. Although race is not supposed to have an effect on communities today, racism, discrimination, and stereotypes are still present in America today. Racism is present in all walks of life and affects everyone, including the person that is harboring all of the hate. Racial division in the United States has primarily consisted of the separation of people into those with white skin and those with black skin. The degree to which skin tone shapes American social relationships is signified linguistically in the way we commonly identify each other as White or Black in everyday jargon. As Lee Artz outlines in his book Cultural Hegemony in the United States, In practice, race has regulated legal treatment, economic opportunity, and social status, and the most defining characteristic of race in the United States has been skin color. In many communities racism hides under rocks and behind the masks of individuals that would never be thought of as a person that holds hate in their heart. It is very hard to determine if someone is being racist because they hide it and use different issues, as an excuse, to show this hate. There are people out there that see, acknowledge, and accept the complications of racism, there are people that do not or cannot see racism, and there are people that are too oblivious to notice it. Racism, discrimination, and stereotyping rears their ugly head in many different forms. This type of ignorance shows itself among the young, the old, the rich, the poor, and in every race. All communities are ill with this problem in one way or another. Majority of the members of my community that looks like me but, there are some that don’t look like me. The individuals that resemble me the most are the people that work hard, love each other, try to help the weak, and attempt to make a differen ce somewhere along the way. The people that do not look like me are the people that rob, steal, lie, and murder. I believe some others look different because of nationality; Missouri is a very diverse state so we see many races. There are leaders of my community that are wonderful role models that take pride in their community and they really care about the people who live here in North Carolina. My community members treat me with respect because I treat them with respect.  Ã‚   As with any community there are also so members of the community who only come to work to get a paycheck and they don’t care about anyone but themselves. I have never personally been mistreated by a leader in my community but I have heard of instances were other community members have been mistreated because they were different or they were from a lower class than others. In my opinion the studies associated with this course does contain information about people like myself and people of my race because there were entries regarding African American history and great accomplishments of the black members of society. Overall, I feel like minority group interests are represented in my community. There are many programs, organizations, scholarship programs, grants, and research material available to the minority groups within my community. I am very fortunate to live in a community that offers the se types of programs because there are many communities that give out scholarships, grants, or loans to only the people that they like. The administrators of these programs may turn away someone because they wear a turban or because the person in need is Asian. My manuals at work are not specifically aimed toward any particular group because everyone is pretty much the same. I feel inequities do exist in my community, if I could change any inequities within my community I would change the way people treat the African Americans in my community. . Sides and Gross (2007) state that, â€Å"negative stereotypes relating to violence and trustworthiness are remarkably common towards African Americans in the publics mind. These stereotypes are underpinned by a similar set of factors that underpin stereotypes of blacks, Hispanic, and Asians- notably, authoritarian values. Furthermore, these stereotypes have consequences: those with less favorable views of African Americans are more likely t o support several measures that are part of the broader American society. African Americans are people that yearn for love, acceptance, and perseverance just as others do. This type of discrimination against the people in my community is very disheartening. It is extremely difficult to understand why anyone would want to hate another person simply because they are a different religion, race, or nationality. Racism is a problem that hurts everyone. It is pure discrimination and cannot be allowed in employment, education, in churches, or on the streets. Racism can also be blind and unreasoning hatred, malice or prejudice. Discrimination is the denial of any equality based on personal attributes. I plan to continue to raise awareness by speaking to people that I come in contact with. I also plan on making a difference by being a good role model. If I see someone acting out of hate I will love them just as I love my own family. Hate breeds hate but love breeds so much more. With love co mes understanding, happiness, and most importantly love breeds change. If one person will just stand up to make a difference then others will follow. Sometimes it just takes that one person to take the lead when others are too scared to stand up and do so. Men and women have lost their lives in the fight for freedom and equality. Racism, discrimination, and stereotypes are still present in our communities today even after everything that this country has gone through. Even though we do not hear about this hate every day is it still present. People are just less likely to be open about it because of fear. Racism has even gotten as bad as restricting people to certain circumscribed areas of residence or to separate institutions and facilities on the basis of race or alleged race. Racial segregation provides a means of maintaining the economic advantages and higher social status of politically dominant races. Historically, various conquerors - among them Asian Mongols, African Bantu, and American Aztecs - have practiced discrimination involving the segre gation of subject races. Racial segregation has appeared in all multiracial communities, except where racial amalgamation has occurred on a large scale, as in Hawaii and Brazil. In such places there has been occasional social discrimination but not legal segregation. In the Southern states of the U.S., public facilities were segregated from the late 19th century into the 1950s (see Jim Crow law), and in South Africa a system of apartheid sanctioned discrimination against nonwhites until it was abolished in the 1990s. While many people believe that racism is something of the past, race related hate is still a serious problem in America, even today. If everyone would realize that ignorance and hate can be channeled into something productive, every single person would be able to live a happy live and thrive in a community of personalities instead of a community of color. Cultural diversity exits in every corner of the world. With diversity unfortunately comes negativity and struggles. Each one of us has our own unique story about where we came from and the different struggles we all faced throughout the years. This is more than true for minority groups Even though we may be different on the outside, we all are here for a common cause, to make the best of what we have and ensure our culture lives on. Although the fact that we are different is never going to change, the negative way we treat out fellow brothers and sisters of the human race can definitely change. The bottom line is that we must accept each other for who we are and what we represent if we are ever going to live in peace. REFERENCES: Race and Place: African American Community Histories,   Retrieved December 4, 2009 www2.vcdh.virginia.edu/afam/raceandplace/index.html – Cached Sides, J. M. and Gross, K. A. , 2007-08-30 Stereotypes of African Americans, Their Causes, and Their Consequence  Retrieved December 3, 2009   allacademic.com/meta/p209079_index.html Ethnicity and race: Nature of ethnicity anthro.palomar.edu/ethnicity/ethnic_2.htm, Retrieved December 4, 2009 Ethnic groups and discrimination, African American Muslim Http://www.Everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=1463139, Retrieved December 3, 2009

Analysis of Public Speech Given by President George W. Bush essays

Analysis of Public Speech Given by President George W. Bush essays The following is an analysis of a speech given by the President of the United States, President George W. Bush on October 7, 2002. The speech was entitled President Bush Outlines Iraqi Threat and was presented at the Cincinnati Museum Center at Cincinnati Union Terminal, Cincinnati, Ohio. In the first instance this important speech is a characterized by a calm argumentative tone and logical persuasion. The central theme of the speech deals with the threat that Iraq poses to the United States and to the world in general. Besides the clear and calm but decisive tone that the speaker uses to convey his massage, the content of the speech is intended to draw attention and to emphasize the serious nature of the subject matter. For example, the speech takes a very broad and general view from the beginning when the President states that he intends to discuss, ... a great threat to peace. (President Bush Outlines Iraqi Threat) The use of wide-ranging and evocative words like threat and peace places the speech at a universal level which involves all people and is not localized. By so doing the speaker draws the audience attention immediately to what is obviously a crucial issue. The speaker then builds his argument and states clearly the reasons for the threat that Iraq poses. The argumentative and persuasive nature of the speech is enhanced by continual references to logical factors and their consequences. The speaker is careful to point out that the present crisis has arisen directly as a result of the actions and intentions of the Iraqi regime and is not a result of aggression on the part of the United States. The tone is consistently assertive and condemnatory and uses reason to support the central points. The speaker employs various techniques to bolster and enforce these main points and to make sure that there can be no doubt in the minds of audience as to his sincerity and ...

Researchweek2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Researchweek2 - Essay Example ance of nurses; where hospital personnel do not set the bed-exit alarm and the cases where a patient is under the influence of high-risk medication (Oliver, Healey, & Haines, 2010). Other situations that could lead to patient falls include where patient assessment is inadequate and where there are delays in responding to call alerts or care delivery. More than 1 million patient falls occur every year. Among US hospitals, falls rates range between 3.1 and 11.5 cases/1,000 patient-days (Quigley et al., 2009). Rates of patient falls differ, depending on the type of hospital unit; the highest rates of falls are reported in the medical and the neuroscience units. Fall rates are 3.48 and 6.12/ 1000 and 6.12 and 8.83/1000 respectively (Quigley et al., 2009). About 30 percent of the total number of patient fall cases cause some form of injury; 10 percent cause the patients serious injury, including the fracture or the trauma of the head. Among aged patients, these falls are extremely dangerous, including that they can cause death or further illness (Oliver, Healey, & Haines, 2010). The statistics reporting the incidence of patient falls and their effects among older patients are very critical and disturbing. Presently, older people of 75 years and above comprise about 22 percent of the patients admitted into hospitals (Wier, Pluntner, & Steiner, 2010). Further, major areas of hospital costs are related to patient falls: these include liability, length-of-stay and care services. The patients that suffered serious injuries, due to falls, while under the care of hospitals remained under care for 6.3 to 12 days more than their counterparts, and also registered higher healthcare costs by an average of USD 13,316 (Brand & Sundarajan, 2010). Additionally, starting 2008 the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services revised their policies – directing that they will not compensate hospitals for the costs incurred on the treatment of these types of injuries (Inouye, Brown, &

Chinese History and Political Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chinese History and Political Science - Essay Example Throughout the world of art, this piece of painting is symbolic and has symbolism that relates to the Chinese culture in various ways. In terms of nature and art, the paintings’ name; landscape, is a combination of two characters namely; water and mountains (Sullivan, 140). With such imprinted in the painting, it is safe to say that nature and art go hand in hand. They have a connection in that both can be represented as one. Water and mountains are natures’ products; they appear naturally and as such certain mountains and rivers are only present in specific places. When this is incorporated into art, then an exquisite piece is generated; one which combines both nature and art to bring out the desired effect onto the art lovers (Sullivan, 165). In terms of tradition, paintings in the Chinese tradition are painted by artists with creative minds in that they imagine what to draw. What they imagine is idealized into landscapes, and this includes mountains (Sullivan, 182). In the Chinese culture, mountains are a blessing, and they are considered good to a persons’ soul. It is this belief that makes the Chinese people love mountains since they are viewed to reach up to the heavens. Colors used also signify something, especially that of water. When green is used, it signifies spring time while jade is summer, blue is autumn and black means winter. Chinese landscape paintings are painted with consideration and significance to the village, seasons, event, age, relationships and taste (Sullivan, 203). The Japanese court painting is a painting that symbolizes the tradition and culture of the Japanese people also in a number of ways (Mason and Donald, 124). The painting dates back to when Buddhism and Taoism had influence over certain denominations. It came to be known as the Heian period, where art signified art and its courts.